We aim to determine the principles of operation of subcortical neuronal networks and their interaction with neuromodulatory systems using a variety of techniques that include ultrastructural anatomy, neuronal tracing, in vivo juxtacellular and high-density electrophysiological recordings, optogenetics, pharmacogenetics and behavior. We aim to understand the principles of operation of neuromodulatory systems in health and disease, and their effects upon cortical and subcortical targets at the cellular, circuit and behavioral levels.